\chapter{Introduction} \section{History and culture of Canada} % [nao] \subsection{Foundation} \label{foundation} Canada is one of the largest countries on the planet, in fact, it is the fourth largest country by land area with approximately 9 million square kilometers \cite{statscan:statarea}. Located in the northern hemisphere of the American continent, it was first discovered by Europeans in 1497 with the expedition of John Cabot. The name ``Canada'' seems to have appeared first in the 16th century when Jacques Cartier, during his 3 voyages to the new world, heard a groups of natives speaking the Iroquoian language referring to a village as ``Kanata''\cite{history}. During the following centuries both French and British colonies were established which led to numerous conflicts between the two empires and the natives. The government of Canada was created with the proclamation of the Constitution Act in 1867, but the present national borders were established only in 1999 because since its first foundation the dominion had expanded multiple times. \subsection{The Flag of Canada} \begin{figure}[h] \centering \begin{subfigure}[h]{.3\textwidth} \includegraphics[width=6cm]{res/images/flag_of_canada.pdf} \caption{Current flag of Canada} \end{subfigure} \qquad\qquad \begin{subfigure}[h]{.3\textwidth} \includegraphics[width=6cm]{res/images/canadian_red_ensign.pdf} \caption{Canadian Red Ensign} \end{subfigure} \caption{Canadian Flags} \end{figure} The current flag of Canada was created in 1964, when the government had an all-party parliamentary committee that prepare multiple designs. Previously Canada didn't have its own official flag but instead used either the English Union Jack or the Canadian Red Ensign, a red flag with a smaller Union Jack on the top left and an ensign on the right side. The simplest design was chosen by the parliament and the current flag was adopted on the 15 December 1964, just in time for the centennial celebration of the confederation 3 years later. \subsection{Canadian Natives} \nocite{firstnations} Before the arrival of the Europeans the northern American continent was populated by various groups of indigenous peoples which today are referred as First Nations (Premières Nations in French) or sometime incorrectly a `Indians'. There were 6 major tribes and each one of them lived in a particular area of the continent. \begin{wrapfigure}{r}{.4\textwidth} \centering \includegraphics[height=6cm]{res/photos/first_nations.jpg} \caption{A group of First Nations People from the area known as Qu'Appelle Lakes} \end{wrapfigure} Each tribe had developed a particular culture based on the environment where they lived. For example on the west coast the Pacific Coast First Nation gave thank to the sea because they lived mostly off fishing, whereas the Iroquian First Nation, on the south, organized many ceremonies during spring as they gathered most of their food from agriculture. But there were some things that all populations had in common: a deep cult of respect for resources offered by nature; everything from hunting to farming had a ritual to honor the harmony between them, the world and the Creator. Another cultural aspect that common all First Nations was a complex social organization system built around hunting developed over thousands of years. Every tribe lived and hunted in a well defined territory in order not to interfere with other clans and communal hunts took place every summer. \subsection{Colonization} The colonization of the `new world' began shortly after its discovery, Europeans started to build settlements in the new continent to explore the new land and get its resources. The beginning of the economic growth of Canada started with the birth of the `New France'. In the early 17th century King Henry IV of France ordered to a group of colonists to build the first French settlement on the continent, so the village of `Port Royal' was created. Shortly after in 1608 a new settlement called Quebec Fortress was also built. With these new colonies the French dominion had planned to colonize the continent, but the harsh environment prevented any expansion. \begin{wrapfigure}{l}{.5\textwidth} \centering \fbox{\includegraphics[width=8.5cm]{res/images/canada_settlements.png}} \caption{Map of European settlements in 1702. Territories under the French dominion are in blue while territories under the British Empire are in red.} \end{wrapfigure} \nocite{canadasettlements} As a result, they started to trade with locals, so many goods were traded with the First Nations in exchange of fur and food to protect the settlers from the cold winters. Later on the trade grew on a bigger scale and many resources were exported to France, which helped the development of the existing and new settlements. At the same time British colonies were also built. Because of the strong power of the British Colonial Empire British settlements grew faster than the other French colonies which caused a shift in power. As the 18th century began Great Britain was the leading power in the trading market. As a consequence of this in many treaties that came next France lost most of its territories while the British expanded theirs. \subsection{Industrialization} In 1867 with the establishment of the North American Act the first Canadian confederation was born. The newly founded Canadian Confederation moved the original economy to a radically different institutional environment. Previously under the control of the United Kingdom the development of the economy was focused on exporting cities near the Atlantic Ocean such as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. But after the federal formation the center of the development was moved into Quebec and Ontario in the mainland. In the following 50 years the Canadian economy shifted more toward agriculture and livestock production and the industry evolved in a strong economy thanks to the introduction of a new railway system. In the 20th century Canada enjoyed a great era of prosperity and industrial development during the post-war period. The economical alliance with the United States contributed a lot to the development of a modernised Canada. \subsection{Modern Canada} Today Canada has become a powerful country with a stable social and economic system and it is a great contributor to various international projects. Post war they enjoyed prosperity and material progress, the world trading restrictive policies were gone and they found oil in Alberta in 1947, which started Canada's modern energy industry. In the following years the life quality of Canadians was raising, they drew closer to the USA and other trading partners enjoying the benefits of trading with one of strongest economies among industrialized nations post war. Today those benefits gave to the Canadians one of the highest standards of living. When Canada's prosperity grew the ability to support the citizien grew as well. Such as employement insurance, old age security and pension plans, or even public fundings for education. The Canadian society today is known to be open and flexible to other cultures, that's why the Canadian population is composed of many ethnic groups. In Canada the official languages are English and French since the original colonial powers that brought them there, were France and the United Kingdom. As official currency Canada uses the Canadian Dollar (CAD), since 2016 one Canadian Dollar equals \href{http://www.xe.com/currencyconverter/convert/?Amount=1&From=CAD&To=CHF}{ 0.76 Swiss Francs}. Canada's GDP (as Q2 2015) is more than twice the swiss one \cite{swisseconomy} with a market price of 1'996'804 millions of Canadian dollars \cite{statscan:ecoimpexps} which roughly equals to 1.54 millions of million of Swiss francs. \section{Natural resources} Canada's huge land area makes it one of richest countries from a natural resources standpoint. Indeed Canada has the third largest reserve of crude oil in the world and it is the second production of Uranium \cite{nrcan:energyfactsbook}. But Canada is also a leader in renewable energy production with a 18.9\% of total energy supply coming just from renewables \cite{nrcan:renewables}. Even if most of the energy produced can be considered eco-friendly Canada still relies heavily on non-renewable energy source as we will see in the next paragraphs. \subsection{Crude Oil} Oil has increasingly become a valuable resource, since the discovery of oil sands extraction technology. The desire for oil independence from the USA and many other NATO states has given a lot of funds for the development of this technology. But for the environment this is not a good, according to a study conducted in 2014 \cite{statscan:ghgemissions}, GHGs (Greenhouse Gases) emissions caused by oil extraction industries have increased by 63.5 millions of tonnes in the last 20 years. \subsection{Natural Gas} Natural gas is the biggest energy source in Canada, mostly produced in Alta is also a major cause of Nitrogen and VOCs (Volatile Organic Compounds) pollution. Even though its extractions and refinement technologies are getting better, the level of pollution has not gone down since 2010. In 2014 56.6 mega tonnes of GHGs were released on the atmosphere. Combined with the oil extraction this economic sector accounts for 26\% of total nation emissions \cite{statscan:ghgemissions}. \subsection{Coal} Despite it makes up half of the world's energy source (mostly in China) and there's an abundance of it, coal represents a minor element in the national energy production, and almost half of the final product gets exported to Japan, China and South Korea. Currently scientists are discouraging its usage because of its high level of pollution and CO\textsubscript{2} emissions. Nonetheless the research in the field of coal refinement, to produce what is called ``Clean Coal'', is still being supported by the government in order to use the enormous quantity lying beneath the Canadian surface.